Measurement Library

American School of Gas Measurement Technology Publications (2023)



Advanced Communication Designs
Author(s): Bob Halford
Abstract/Introduction:
[Abstract Not Available]
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Document ID: C24B173A

AN OVERVIEW AND UPDATE OF AGA 9
Author(s): Jim Bowen, Martin Schlebach
Abstract/Introduction:
The American Gas Association published Report No. 9, Measurement of Gas by Multipath Ultrasonic Meters 2nd Edition Ref 1 in April 2007. Report 9 details recommended practice for using multipath gas ultrasonic meters (USMs) in fiscal (custody) measurement applications. This paper reviews some of the history behind the development of AGA Report No. 9 (often referred to as AGA 9), key Report contents, which includes information on meter performance requirements, design features, testing procedures, and installation criteria. This paper also discusses changes that were incorporated in the latest revision. Rev3 of AGA TMC Report 9 was published in July of 2017. A subsequent appended version was approved and released in Oct of 2021.
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Document ID: 5CA5CFB8

AN OVERVIEW OF PIPELINE LEAK DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES
Author(s): Jun Zhang, Peter Han, Michael Twomey
Abstract/Introduction:
Pipelines have transported water, oil and gas for hundreds of years, serving residential communities, industrial sites and commercial centers reliably and silently. Leak detection systems (LDS) are needed because pipeline spills occur more frequently as infrastructure ages and more hazardous products are transported. Leak detection systems cannot prevent leaks, but they can certainly help minimize the consequence of leak. Regrettably, too many leak detection systems fail to detect leaks, and other leak detection systems are ignored by the operators because they are unreliable. Thus, leaks that should have been small spills become disasters that cost pipeline owners millions of dollars
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Document ID: C7DCD263

APPLICATION OF FLOW COMPUTERS FOR MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL
Author(s): Al Majek
Abstract/Introduction:
The measurement of oil & gas production has progressed considerably since the days of paper charts and manual integration. While still in use today, the technology has moved increasingly to microprocessor based flow computers. Such devices allow for greater measurement accuracy, increased control functionality, and are readily integrated into a companys enterprise computer networks.
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Document ID: FC2D8AA4

Artificial Intelligence - Data Capture and Back-Office Measurement Applications
Author(s): Bruce Wallace
Abstract/Introduction:
The Oil and Gas industry is incorporating Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies to improve their operational efficiency, reduce costs, and enhance safety.
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Document ID: B7EF9661

AUDITING GAS ANALYSIS LABS
Author(s): Carl Alleman
Abstract/Introduction:
The data produced by Gas Chromatograph (GC) laboratories is used for many purposes, including product specification, accounting, safety and environmental compliance issues. The accuracy of this data has direct impact on all of these areas. Auditing laboratories responsible for producing this data is prudent business practice. The audit will provide a means of process improvement, through proper identification of deficiencies and a precise plan for corrective action. The level of confidence in analytical results will increase when the appropriate corrective actions are implemented. The amount of financial and legal exposure can be reduced from a properly executed audit program.
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Document ID: 312B745F

BASICS OF ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS
Author(s): Garrett McLean
Abstract/Introduction:
The purpose of this paper is to explain the measurement of natural gas for custody transfer applications through the use of ultrasonic meters. Specifically, this paper explains the operation of ultrasonic meters, issues surrounding their performance in natural gas, calibration procedures, and proper installation considerations. Additionally, the electronics making the measurements generate calculated values relating to the operation of the meter and as a result a database is available to provide analysis of the meters ongoing performance. Meter health parameters can be evaluated to verify the meters operation and these principles are explained.
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Document ID: B9090F56

BASIC IP NETWORKING FOR FIELD TECHNICIANS
Author(s): Burke P. Miller
Abstract/Introduction:
Todays oil & gas industry is facing major technology changes in the field automation and control of devices. In the past nearly all SCADA and EFM devices only had a serial port to gather the data. These devices now have Ethernet ports along with serial ports, to communicate, control, program and transmit the data back to a company central data gathering/polling host. This change from mostly serial to mostly Ethernet communications has made the job of a field automation / measurement technician more complex. Setting up the Ethernet port in a meter involves knowing a number of parameters to ensure reliable communications of the data being polled. This article will cover some of the basic things a technician will have to know to connect to your company WAN (Wide Area Network).
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Document ID: 2C55A2B4

CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS LIQUID QUANTITIES
Author(s): Keith Fry
Abstract/Introduction:
There is no substitute for well maintained, properly installed, and properly performing measurement equipment. Industry- standard measurement equipment installation, operation, and maintenance provide the raw data necessary for those dealing with natural gas liquids (NGLs) to transact business. Then, this raw data can be adjusted or converted to values suitable for transactions to take place and for proper accounting. To determine which adjustments or conversions to use, begin by understanding the desired results. Some measurement processes and accounting applications require volumetric quantities. Others require mass quantities. For many NGL applications, the preferred outcomes are liquid volumes of pure components. This is because many NGLs are eventually fractionated into pure products and market prices for these are readily available. Sometimes, the gas equivalent values of liquids are useful for operations. Knowing the starting point is equally important. The starting point can vary depending on the type of measurement. Different resources and applications provide for different means of measuring NGLs. Quantity measurements can be made on a mass basis or a volumetric basis.
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Document ID: E4487834

COMMON INDUSTRY STANDARDS RELATED TO NATURAL GAS MEASUREMENT
Abstract/Introduction:
Measurement standards are important because they can be used as a framework for buyers and sellers to trust that the transaction is fair. If you have purchased a cubic foot of natural gas, you want to be sure you really received a full cubic foot of gas. For custody transfer, the gas measurement should be trusted by both the buyer and seller to be accurate. Measurement standards represent Best Practice policy and procedures commonly in use by the industry. Standards represent This is what works!.
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Document ID: 5DE498AB

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE OFFICE AND FIELD
Author(s): Duane A. Harris
Abstract/Introduction:
Transferring the knowledge base regarding the measurement equipment between a field measurement technician and a corporate measurement analyst can be extremely challenging. A Field technicians skill set is tested on a routine basis therefore, the technician must be knowledgeable in: ? electronic controls to pneumatic controls ? communication system support ? multiple disciplines ? support of measurement equipment ? procedures that must be followed ? regulatory requirements governing the facilities ? ongoing training of field personnel Each organization is constantly facing challenges due to these factors as well as many others. Evaluating periodic data, testing, and calibration procedures requires two different skills sets depending on if you are a field technician or a cement analyst. The task for the measurement analyst is to absorb the wealth of information presented, and utilize their extensive knowledge base in order to determine when a current month adjustment or even a prior month adjustment is warranted.
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Document ID: 47A9E916

COMPAIRING PLUG & SEAT REGULATORS & CONTROL VALVES
Author(s): Rick Schneider
Abstract/Introduction:
In todays charging world of technology there have been may changes in controls that now allow to truly compare a plug and seat regulator to a control valve for high-pressure natural gas installations such as: power plants, city gate stations, large industrial customers, compressor stations, and storage fields. The features, benefits, capabilities, and differences of both devices will be outlined, to enable the reader to make an educated selection. In addition, acceptable design practices will be reviewed concerning sizing, gas velocities, noise levels, equipment layout, and performance. The ball valve is the most commonly used type of modulating valve for natural gas pipeline control applications, for that reason, we will limit this discussion to comparison between the plug and seat regulator and versions of a 1/4 turn ball valve.
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Document ID: D28EBA5D

DESIGN OF COMPLETE METERING, PREHEATING, FCV, BI-DI, REGULATING, ODORIZATION and SCADA FACILITIES
Author(s): Tom Quine
Abstract/Introduction:
[Abstract Not Available]
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Document ID: FAE5B920

CONSIDERATIONS FOR LIQUID MEASUREMENT IN PRODUCTION APPLICATIONS
Author(s): Joey Raskie
Abstract/Introduction:
With the proliferation of horizontal drilling allowing access to tight oil formations, liquid production in the U.S. has significantly increased over recent years. Consequently, there is renewed interest in accurate measurements for both custody transfer and allocation purposes. Advances in measurement automation have yielded operators savings in the millions of dollars annually. Over the last several years, the increase of shale play drilling has created a problem within the industry. Most of the shale plays have been developed in primarily natural gas production areas, where a lack of liquids measurement knowledge may exist. While there certainly are knowledgeable people in these areas, measurement personnel can be spread thin due to the many active drill sites. Both allocation measurement and custody transfer measurement occur in these areas, so measurement personnel must be well versed on both. Typical questions that come up are: What is the right technology to use in each of the areas of measurement? Should I use turbine meters, Coriolis meters, or maybe just orifice meters? What data do I need to get back to my host system? Should I just count barrels or do I want to get some real insight into the process?
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Document ID: 44BFEA8C

CONSIDERATIONS FOR SAMPLING WET, HIGH PRESSURE, AND SUPERCRITICAL NATURAL GAS
Author(s): Donald P. Mayeaux, Shannon M. Bromley
Abstract/Introduction:
It is a well-established fact that the sample conditioning system (SCS) is the largest source of error in natural gas analysis. The SCS is comprised of all the components which contact the sample on its journey to the analyzer, including those which are designed to protect the analyzer from damage by solids and liquids. Its purpose is to extract a representative sample from a natural gas source, condition it so that it is compatible with the analyzer, then transport it to the analyzer for analysis. During this process, the SCS must maintain the integrity of the sample composition. Knowledge of the physics and chemistry related to the extraction, transportation and conditioning of natural gas sampling is a must for anyone who designs, maintains, or purchases a sample conditioning system
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Document ID: F1D0B894

CONTINUOUS MONITORING OF ULTRASONIC METERS
Author(s): Randy Miller
Abstract/Introduction:
There are many in our industry who would consider the advancement of the ultrasonic meter to be one of the most important improvements in gas measurement in the past twenty years. It is my opinion that the immense improvement in gas measurement is not so much the ultrasonic meter itself. Instead, I believe it is the meters ability to detect conditions that would compromise its own accuracy and ability to communicate those conditions to the user. It is in the area of communicating those conditions, that we often under-utilize the meters capabilities. The natural gas pipeline industry has seen tremendous changes in the past twenty years, including a smaller multi- skilled workforce. The reality of todays pipeline workforce is fewer technicians performing a wider range of tasks. Much of their measurement work is performed with less frequency, and on more complex equipment than ever before. Gaining the proficiency needed to recognize and troubleshoot ultrasonic meter problems, requires time and experience to learn. By bringing the meters diagnostic data into our SCADA system, we can provide alarms and trending capabilities that are not dependent on the frequency at which a Technician can visit a measurement facility. Furthermore, it is not dependent on whether a Technician has the necessary expertise to recognize potential meter problems.
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Document ID: 1376B606

COPING WITH CHANGING FLOW REQUIREMENTS AT EXSISTING METERING STATIONS
Author(s): James M. Doyle
Abstract/Introduction:
In todays competitive gas market, utility companies must meet aggressive market strategies or suffer the consequences. All industries have cash registers, and gas distribution is no exception. Our measuring stations are our cash register. The problem is, these stations were designed 10, 20, 30 or even 50 years ago, and are now performing tasks they were not designed for. Therefore, changes must be made. Measurement personnel today must be trained and taught to cope with changing flow requirements. But, modifying a station to meet todays aggressive market can be very expensive. Equipment, such as regulators and the primary element (the meter tube, the orifice plate holder, and the orifice plate), must meet A.G.A. 3 requirements. The secondary element (the recording device) can raise expenditures significantly. Sometimes modifications cannot be made to deliver the specified volume of product needed, and replacement of a complete station is even more expensive. Companies today must watch money closely, and work to reduce operating and maintenance costs.
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Document ID: F60B59A4

Cyber Security in OT
Author(s): Asim Farooq
Abstract/Introduction:
Advancement in technology has no doubt given us an edge in making our lives better and more productive. We can preempt health related concerns by providing diagnoses before they become an issue. We can extract natural resources with more efficiency and with less impact to the environment. We are even able to access conferences and lecture materials remotely in the comfort of our homes. With the push to get these advancements into our daily lives and even into an industrial plant, security though essential, is sometimes a beast of a task to maintain! Many have not thoroughly considered the effects of bringing industrial data to our fingertips and then having to keep it updated. Why update it? Well, the data is not only accessible for the right user, but it is also accessible to the wrong user without keeping pace with the changes in technology.
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Document ID: 82A3B0F8

DEW POINT WET GAS AND ITS EFFECT ON NATURAL GAS SAMPLING SYSTEMS
Author(s): Philip A Lawrence
Abstract/Introduction:
Wet gas measurement is becoming widely used in the modern oil and gas market place. The effect of entrained liquid in gas and its impact on measurement systems is being researched world-wide by various laboratories and JIP working groups. The impact can be very significant financially. Hydrocarbon Dew Point can also effect the financial operation of a gas transportation company if not managed effectively amounting to hundreds of thousands of dollars per annum based on incorrect sampling and its subsequent analysis. The subject is quite large and encompasses many different concepts, meter types, standards and opinions, with many new ideas brought to the forefront each year as more research is done. From upstream applications to midstream measurement issues caused by liquid drop out in the pipelines were gas gathering systems are used. The issue of liquid entrained gas is becoming a big issue! Small quantities of hydrocarbon liquid in a gas sample stream can have a large impact on the BTU value analysis and cause large losses or gains depending on which side of the financial fence you are.
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Document ID: 339378B3

DIFFERENTIAL METERS OTHER THAN ORIFICE: ALTERNATIVE OPTIONS AVAILABLE FOR DIFFERENTIAL MEASUREMENT
Author(s): Richard L. Wakeland, P.E., Cheryl D. Wakeland
Abstract/Introduction:
Flow is one of the four major physical measurements in processes. Flow meters may be classified in four categories: differential pressure, velocity, mass and positive displacement or volumetric. Each category has advantages and disadvantages however, the focus of this paper will be the differential pressure flow meters. Differential pressure (dP) flow meters include flow elements such as the orifice plate, venturi, flow nozzle, wedge meter, cone meter and proprietary devices. The elbow flow meter, pitot and annubar are also differential type flow meters, but have a different operating principle than the others and are outside of the scope of this paper. These meters may be referred to as flow elements (FE) or primary flow elements. These flow elements are called primary because an additional or secondary device must be attached to indicate the measured differential pressure. This secondary device may be an electronic transmitter, manometer, standpipe or gage.
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Document ID: E488E3B8

D.O.T. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE TRANSPORTATION OF SAMPLE CYLINDERS
Author(s): David J. Fish
Abstract/Introduction:
The United States Department of Transportation (D.O.T.) is a department of the U.S. Federal Government which oversees all issues regarding transportation within the United States of America and U.S. Territories. Its influence around the world is great and widely respected, but its jurisdiction and power of enforcement is limited to the USA and its territories. As regards this paper, we will discuss the D.O.T. and its involvement surrounding sample cylinders for the hydrocarbon industry and the rules regarding the movement of these cylinders from point to point in the United States.
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Document ID: CE87EB43

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP AT ALL LEVELS
Author(s): Bill Stahl
Abstract/Introduction:
We study Engineering, Accounting, Business Management, Computer Science and a host of other curriculums on our way to employment. Technical schools teach us Ohms Law, Fundamental Physics, Chemistry, Electronics and Welding. Courses and complete degree programs in Leadership are available but for some reason, Effective Leadership is rarely taught in the disciplines found in our industry. While we admire sports heroes and winning coaches, how often do we admire winning CEOs or Managers? How many coaches, teachers or other people of influence have mentored us to success? How do we adapt the winning qualities we find in sports or college to Leadership in our careers? Sadly, Managers often lead or manage as they were managed. Traditions and bad habits persist as employees tolerate poor leadership and sometimes move to competition or out of the industry all together.
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Document ID: 2DD63867

EFFECTS AND CONTROL OF PULSATION IN GAS MEASUREMENT
Author(s): Edgar B. Bowles, Jr.
Abstract/Introduction:
One of the most common measurement errors and the most difficult to identify in natural gas metering systems is that caused by pulsating flow. It is important to understand the effects that pulsations have on the common types of flow meters used in the gas industry so that potential error-producing mechanisms can be identified and avoided. It is also essential to understand pulsation control techniques for mitigating pulsation effects. This paper describes the effects of pulsation on orifice, turbine, ultrasonic, and other flow meter types. It also presents basic methods for mitigating pulsation effects at meter installations, including a specific procedure for designing acoustic filters that can isolate a flow meter from the source of pulsation
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Document ID: 4A3102E1

EFFECTS OF WET GAS FLOW ON GAS ORIFICE PLATE METERS
Author(s): Richard Steven
Abstract/Introduction:
Orifice plate meters are one of the most widely used technologies in industry for gas flow metering. This is due to their relative simplicity, the extensive publicly available data sets that led to several orifice plate meter standards 1, 2, 3, 4 and the fact that they are a relatively inexpensive method of gas metering. However, it is common in industry for gas meters to be installed in applications where the flows are actually wet gas flows, i.e. flows where there is some liquid entrainment in a predominantly gas flow. This is usually done out of economic necessity or due to the fact that the system designers were not aware at the systems conceptual design stage that the gas flow would have entrained liquid. Therefore, with the orifice plate meter being such a popular gas flow meter it is by default the most common wet gas flow meter. The affect of wet gas flow on an orifice plate meter configured for gas flow service is complicated. There are on going research programs aimed at improving the understanding of the reaction of the orifice plate meter to wet gas flow. Whereas much of this research is published in recent conference papers it is very technical and is not always immediately relevant to the technician in the field how this information can be practically applied. This paper attempts to review the current scientific knowledge from a practical users stand point.
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Document ID: 9BA1FD2D

AUDITING ELECTRONIC GAS MEASUREMENT PER API MPMS, CHAPTER 21.1
Author(s): Keith Fry
Abstract/Introduction:
Advances in technology during the last decades of the 20th century led the gas measurement industry from the pneumatic / mechanical age to the electronic / digital age. While these advances allowed the industry to improve the accuracy of gas measurement, they also brought an abundance of data with additional complexity. Flow measurement information was inconsistent and often incomplete among manufacturers and data service providers. Those responsible for custody transfer and interested parties needed assurances of the integrity and accuracy of the measurement processes. The industrys response was to standardize electronic gas measurement, resulting in APIs Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS), Chapter 21, Section 1 - Flow Measurement Using Electronic Metering Systems (API 21.1). API 21.1 standardized how the components of an electronic gas measurement system should work together to provide accurate and auditable gas measurement. Auditing electronic gas measurement systems involves reviewing and examining the electronic measurement process and data. An adequate review of the data cannot be performed without a minimum amount of information. The API 21.1 standard provides the minimum requirements for compiling and maintaining sufficient data and information for verification and application of reasonable adjustments to electronic gas measurement systems
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Document ID: 402F3B0D

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS IN MEASUREMENT
Author(s): Terry Jackson
Abstract/Introduction:
The use of electronics is evolving in the measurement industry. The technology of measurement and control has evolved over the past few decades. Systems have moved from mechanical devices that were read on site to early versions of electronic systems that were polled infrequently. Current systems can control several devices such as pumps, meters or injectors simultaneously using advanced electronics to measure, control and communicate at greater frequency than ever.
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Document ID: 4DA669AA

ELECTRONIC GAS MEASUREMENT AUDITING
Author(s): Gary P. Menzel, Perry Dee Hummel
Abstract/Introduction:
Electronic gas measurement auditing or EFM auditing is a very important process in the natural gas industry. Within the last twenty years, the natural gas industry has changed from the dry flow chart recorder to the Electronic flow Computer(EFM) as the primary method of recording the measurement data for custody transfer. These flow computers are still typically connected to an orifice meter and are subject to all of the problems in the primary device that a chart recorder was. In addition they have their own set of problems that crop up in the flow computer and transmitters, some of which had similar problems when it was a chart recorder and some of which are unique to the flow computer. Careful review of the meter data should still be (and usually is) a part of the monthly close process. Even with the review process, occasionally measurement errors make it through to the payment calculation. It is for this reason that auditing is necessary and prudent. A proper audit procedure can be cost effective and ensure that proper credit is received for any delivery. As a side benefit, it will also help ensure that internal measurement is being performed properly.
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Document ID: 99BA3D5A

ETHICS
Author(s): John Chisholm
Abstract/Introduction:
Measurement requires the highest level of ethical integrity in an industry that relies on ethical integrity at every level. A measurement professional is the provider of data to all the other professionals involved in the petroleum industry. If the measurement professional fails at their assigned duties, all the other branches of this industry make decisions based on poor data, or, in the worst case, false data.
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Document ID: 390315C1

FACTORS AFFECTING DIGITAL PRESSURE CALIBRATION ASSOCIATED TECHNIQUES, USES, TRACEABILITY, AND PROBLEMS
Author(s): Scott A. Crone
Abstract/Introduction:
Pressure calibration is as important today as it has been for a very long time, but the way calibration is done and the equipment used to do it has changed drastically. In the past it was a standard practice to use a primary standard for pressure calibration. That standard was normally a dead weight tester or a manometer. Today with more accurate secondary standards available there is a larger choice in what can be used for pressure calibration. What is used normally will depend on the requirements that have to be met and the equipment that is available.
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Document ID: 8171F4A9

Flare Measurement According to API 14.10
Author(s): Eric Estrada
Abstract/Introduction:
With the recent release of the Green House Gas Regulations, the increased visibility of flaring natural gas and increased awareness of royalty owners, the ability to accurately measure and account for the amount of product flared from a facility has become increasingly important to regulators, royalty owners and operators. In the past, flare gas was not considered a necessary measurement, so the measurement of flared product has often been overlooked or not given the same attention as custody transfer measurement. As such API published API MPMS Chapter 14.10, Measurement of Flow to Flares, in June of 2007. This paper will provide a quick overview of the contents of API MPMS 14.10 but is encouraged to obtain 14.10 if more detailed information is desired. In addition, a brief discussion on the importance of calibrating flare flow meters is also discussed
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Document ID: 5F807458

FLUID FLOW CONDITIONING FOR METER ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
Author(s): Danny Sawchuk
Abstract/Introduction:
Flow conditioning is one of the most critical aspects dealing with any type of volumetric flow metering. Flow conditioning is the final buffer between the flow meter and the upstream piping layout and is responsible for eliminating swirl, restoring flow symmetry and generating a repeatable, fully developed velocity flow profile. Even though modern advancements have resulted in low uncertainty, high repeatability devices that are effective across a range of flow rates, proper utilization of flow conditioner is still required to maximize the meters performance, diagnostics and ensure the most stable long term flow measurement. All flow conditioner technologies are not made equal, as commonly used designs such as AGA tube bundles and straightening vanes can actually cause more measurement problems than they resolve. This paper will focus on two main types of flow conditioners perforated plate systems and tube bundles.
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Document ID: 5331424F

FUNDAMENTALS OF CORIOLIS METERS AGA REPORT NO. 11
Author(s): Marc Butler
Abstract/Introduction:
Since the early 1980s, Coriolis meters have gained worldwide acceptance in gas, liquid, and slurry applications with an installed base of more than one million units. Through significant design, enhancements in the early 1990s Coriolis meters have rapidly gained worldwide acceptance in gas phase applications with over 100,000 meters installed worldwide and most notably the publication of the second edition of AGA Report Number 11, Measurement of Natural Gas by Coriolis Meter.
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Document ID: E953580B

FUNDAMENTALS OF PYCNOMETERS AND DENSITOMETERS
Author(s): Kevin Fields
Abstract/Introduction:
This paper will discuss pycnometers and there uses during densitometer provings. The primary objective will be to provide guidance in the operation and maintenance of a densitometer and pycnometer (pyc) uses, as well as common issues found during normal conditions.
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Document ID: 6D12BE15

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DIAPHRAGM DISPLACEMENT METERS
Author(s): Robert Bennett
Abstract/Introduction:
The first gas company in the U.S., The Gas Light Company of Baltimore, Maryland, founded in 1816, struggled for years with financial and technical problems while operating on a flat rate basis. Its growth was slow with the charge for gas service beyond the pocketbook of the majority. By comparison, the New York Gas Light Company, founded in 1823, prospered and expanded. They had built their system on the use of gas meters to measure the supply of gas to customers, and a large one to register the quantity made at the station before it is conveyed to the gasometers. The pattern of operation used by this New York company was quickly copied by other companies throughout the East Coast, including the Baltimore company. Seeing the success, New York businessmen formed new gas companies in Albany, Boston, Philadelphia, New York, etc. and the new U.S. gas distribution industry began to flourish. Since this early beginning, meters have been an important, integral element in every phase of gas industry operations. Various types of meters are used diaphragm, rotary, turbine, and orifice each serving a definite purpose and meeting specific requirements. These four common types of meters can be broken down into two distinct categories: positive displacement and inferential. Diaphragm and rotary meters fall into the positive displacement category because they have well-defined measurement compartments that alternately fill and empty as the meter rotates. By knowing the volume displaced in each meter revolution and by applying the proper gear ratio, the meter will read directly in cubic feet or cubic meters. Turbine and orifice meters, on the other hand, have no measurement compartments to trap and then release the gas. These meters are inferential meters in that the volume passing through them is inferred by observing or measuring some physical characteristic.
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Document ID: 2932B987

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC FLOW METER DESIGN, APPLICATION & IMPLEMENTATION
Author(s): Martin Johnson
Abstract/Introduction:
Electronic flow measurement as applied to the natural gas industry has advanced considerably over the last 30 years. Applications to address Upstream, Midstream and Downstream gas measurement technologies have become more complex. Over time it has become necessary to understand the fundaments that make up this ever-changing environment. This paper will discuss the important fundamental parameters to consider when designing an Electronic Flow Measurement (EFM) system. Please be aware of the many variances to each specific design and understand this is only a fundamental paper to give new gas industry members a first look at the technologies that are required when considering an EFM design.
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Document ID: 0CA229B5

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENERGY DETERMINATION
Author(s): J. David Hailey, Ph.D.
Abstract/Introduction:
This paper presents fundamental information necessary to understand and appreciate the concept of total gas energy in a natural gas pipeline. That is, to be able to converse with peers within the natural gas industry and understand basic concepts and terminology. Discussed is the historical transition from volumetric measurement to total gas energy including some of the basic terminology, physics, measurement, as well as the reasons for changes in methodologies. Included is industry acceptance of new concepts and regulations involving custody transfer as well as the instrumentation and systems involved in traditional and newer, more progressive forms of gas measurement.
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Document ID: 630011B4

FUNDAMENTALS OF GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
Author(s): Jamie Marsden
Abstract/Introduction:
Gas chromatography is one of the most widely used techniques for analyzing hydrocarbon mixtures. Some of the advantages of chromatography are the range of measurement (from ppm levels up to 100%), the detection of a wide range of components, and the repeatability of the measurements. Chromatography is used in the laboratory, in permanently installed online systems, and in the field with portable systems. No matter the location, style or brand, all gas chromatographs are composed of the same functional components that are the sample handling system, the chromatograph oven, and the controller electronics (refer Figure 1). This paper will cover the principles or sample handling, how chromatograph columns separate the components, why and how multi-port analysis valves are used, the common detector type used in the hydrocarbon applications, and the analysis processing that provides the component concentrations and the other calculated values (such as heating value and specific gravity) through physical reports or interfaces to other devices.
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Document ID: 2F9E0E3E

FUNDAMENTALS OF GAS LAWS
Author(s): John Chisholm
Abstract/Introduction:
In the gas industry a standard unit of measure is required. In the English system it is the standard cubic foot. In the metric, it is the standard cubic meter. This standard unit is the basis of all exchange in the gas industry. When the unit of purchase is the energy content (BTU) we achieve it by multiplying the BTU content of a standard cubic foot times the number of cubic feet delivered to the customer. So we must obtain standard cubic feet or meters. A standard cubic foot is defined as one cubic foot of gas at a pressure and temperature agreed upon by the buyer and seller. Common standard conditions are 14.73 psia and 60 Fahrenheit. The gas passing through a meter is rarely at standard conditions. It is necessary to convert the gas in the meter from the metered conditions to standard cubic feet. The tools we have for relating volume to pressure and temperature are Equations of State or, simply, the Gas Laws. The Gas Laws serve two purposes. They allow the conversion of a gas stream from metered conditions to standard conditions. They also provide an understanding of what the gas is doing and why. This paper will briefly present the Gas Laws and the physical properties of gas that the Gas Laws describe.
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Document ID: B6E83791

FUNDAMENTALS OF GAS TURBINE METERS
Author(s): PAUL HONCHAR
Abstract/Introduction:
The majority of all gas measurement used in the world today is performed by two basic types of meters, positive displacement and inferential. Positive displacement meters, consisting mainly of diaphragm and rotary style devices, generally account for lower volume measurement. Orifice, ultrasonic and turbine meters are the three main inferential class meters used for large volume measurement today. Turbines are typically considered to be a repeatable device used for accurate measurement over large and varying pressures and flow rates. They are found in a wide array of elevated pressure applications ranging from atmospheric conditions to 1440 psig. Turbine meters have also become established as master or reference meters used in secondary calibration systems such as transfer provers. A significant number of both mechanical and electrical outputs and configurations have become available over the past 60 years of production.
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Document ID: E2BF4E80

FUNDAMENTALS OF MULTIPATH ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS FOR LIQUID MEASUREMENT
Author(s): Dan Hackett
Abstract/Introduction:
The use of Liquid Ultrasonic Meters for liquid petroleum applications such as custody transfer or allocation measurement is gaining world wide acceptance by the Oil Industry. Ultrasonic technology is well established but the use of this technology for custody transfer and allocation measurement is relatively new. Often users try to employ the same measurement practices that apply to turbine technology to the Liquid Ultrasonic. There are some similarities such as: the need for flow conditioning, upstream and downstream piping requirements but there can also be differences such as the proving technique. This paper will discuss the basics of liquid ultrasonic meter operation and performance. While proving liquid ultrasonic meters is not specifically discussed, diagnostic information available to troubleshoot meter performance in general will be presented.
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Document ID: B974D987

FUNDAMENTALS OF NATURAL GAS CHEMISTRY
Author(s): Steve Whitman
Abstract/Introduction:
In order to understand the chemistry of natural gas, it is important to be familiar with some basic concepts of general chemistry. Here are some definitions you should know: Matter - anything that has mass and occupies space. Energy - the capacity to do work or transfer heat. Elements - substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical changes. There are approximately 112 known elements. Examples: carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. Atom - the smallest unit in which an element can exist. Atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
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Document ID: FD9AD94F

FUNDAMENTALS OF NATURAL GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT USING CLAMP-ON ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS
Author(s): MARTIN DINGMAN
Abstract/Introduction:
[Abstract Not Available]
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Document ID: 2543EE55

FUNDAMENTALS OF NATURAL GAS LIQUID MEASUREMENT
Author(s): Don Sextro, Dan Comstock
Abstract/Introduction:
The measurement of natural gas liquids (NGL) is similar in many respects to that of other hydrocarbon liquids but is markedly different in other aspects. The main difference in NGL measurement is the need to properly address the effects of solution mixing. Measuring NGL by mass measurement techniques will properly address solution mixing effects because the mass measurement process is not sensitive to the effect that pressure, temperature and solution mixing have on the fluid measured. Another difference is the effect of higher vapor pressures on the measurement of natural gas liquids. In static measurement methods, the liquid equivalent of the vapor space must be determined. In dynamic measurement methods, the equilibrium vapor pressure, or that pressure at which a liquid and its vapor phase is in equilibrium at a given operating temperature, must be deducted from the operating pressure when determining the compressibility effects on measured volumes. This paper will describe the basic concepts used to measure and report the quantities of NGL streams.
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Document ID: 5712DBA8

FUNDAMENTALS OF NGL METER STATION DESIGN
Author(s): Tony Lockard, Doug Patel
Abstract/Introduction:
This paper provides a fundamental overview of an NGL meter station design reviewing the nuances of configuring similar components in different ways. There are multiple considerations that influence the meter station design and all must be taken into account. Major considerations are: what product or products will be measured, what meter technology to utilize, and the process design limitations. The first thing that must be taken into account is whether the product is a purity product or a mixed compositional product. Most purity products are measured and accounted for by volume, while a mixed compositional product is measured and accounted for by mass. This influences the meter skid design, since mass product skids must be set-up to allow for the streams mass and streams composition to be measured properly. The second consideration that influences the skid design is the meter technology chosen. The skid components required can change depending on the meter technology selected. There are numerous meter technologies available on the market, but the three major meter technologies commonly used for NGL custody measurement are Turbine meters, Coriolis meters, and Positive Displacement (PD) meters. Other minor considerations will be discussed at the appropriate times throughout the paper.
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Document ID: 8D35D456

FUNDAMENTALS OF NGL SAMPLING SYSTEMS
Author(s): Dominic Giametta, Jim Klentzman
Abstract/Introduction:
The purpose of this paper is to discuss in depth the systems we use as a standard to sample natural gas liquids, or NGLs. Before we discuss the systems and methods used to sample these products, we must first clearly define what NGLs are. NGLs can be a combination of any fluid in liquid form that is taken from the pipeline under pressure. Typically, NGL refers mainly to ethane, propane, butanes, and natural gasolines (pentanes) & condensates. Because of the broad range of products that can be claimed as NGLs, there are many different approaches to the methods by which we sample them. The common thread among all NGLs is that these products in order to be maintained and properly sampled, require the use of specific sampling techniques unique to light liquid and NGL sampling.
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Document ID: C4FE3DE0

PRINCIPLES OF ODORIZATION
Author(s): Stephen West
Abstract/Introduction:
Natural Gas has no innate odor, color, or taste therefore, odorization is one of the most important aspects to safely transporting natural gas to customers in a distribution system. As demand for natural gas rises as does the technology involved in odorization. The first odorization occurred in Germany in the 1880s by a German scientist as a means of detecting leaking blue water gas. Fragmented and unregulated odorization of natural gas continued in the United States throughout the early 20th century until tragedy struck in in 1937 in New London, TX. An undetected gas leak at the New London School caused an explosion that completely leveled the school and ultimately killed over 300 people. As a result of this tragedy, the Texas legislature immediately moved to make the odorization of natural gas mandatory. Soon regulation spread across the entire United States. For this reason, it is important that we understand the tremendous responsibility of knowing and implementing the odorization process.
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Document ID: 484488DF

FUNDAMENTALS OF ORIFICE METERING
Author(s): David Courtney
Abstract/Introduction:
The history of orifice metering began in the early 1900s. The first test data was done by the U.S. Geological Survey and in 1913 the first Handbook of Natural Gas was published. So, as you can tell, orifice metering has been around for over 100 years and in that time, much has been learned and improved on. Orifice metering flow equations have been derived from test data where an orifice plate, a plate with a hole in the middle of it, was placed in the flow line causing a restriction in flow. This differential was then compared to the actual amount that passed by the orifice and from that information engineers can then ascertain by mathematical algorithms what equations to use to duplicate those results. Below is a schematic of an orifice differential being compared to a known prover volume.
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Document ID: D6716DC9

FUNDAMENTALS OF PRESSURE REGULATORS
Author(s): Jim Mueller
Abstract/Introduction:
In the gas industry, there are two basic types of regulators used for both pressure reducing and back pressure (relief) control. The two types are: ? Self Operated Regulators (Sometimes referred to as spring loaded regulators) ? Pilot Operated Regulators (Loading and Unloading style pilot regulators)
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Document ID: 1A4DB30E

Relief Valves and Other Methods of Overpressure Protection
Author(s): Jeff Hoffman
Abstract/Introduction:
Overpressure protective devices are of vital concern to the gas industry. Safety codes and current laws require their installation each time a pressure reducing station is installed that supplies gas from any system to another system with a lower maximum allowable operating pressure. The purpose of this article is to provide a systematic review of the various methods of providing the overpressure protection. Advantages and disadvantages of each method are evaluated, and engineering guidelines are provided
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Document ID: 0F317097

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIQUID TURBINE METERS
Author(s): Daniel Householder
Abstract/Introduction:
Turbine meters have been used for the custody transfer of refined petroleum products and light crude oils for over 40 years. When correctly applied, they offer high accuracy and long service life over a wide range of products and operating conditions. Traditionally turbine metes were used for the measurement of low viscosity liquids and PD meters for higher viscosities. However, new developments in turbine meter technology are pushing these application limits while increasing reliability and accuracy. This paper will examine the fundamental principles of turbine meter measurement as well as new developments including: smart preamps for real-time diagnostics, helical flow turbine meters for higher viscosity applications, higher performance flow conditioners to increase accuracy, and viscosity compensation to extend the application limits
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Document ID: 7E88E921

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ROTARY DISPLACEMENT METERS
Author(s): Terrence A. Grimley
Abstract/Introduction:
The basic geometric configuration for rotary positive displacement meters was originally conceived for pumping water in the mid-1800s and was patented as a rotary blower in 1860 (US Patent 30,157). The original design used wood for the rotors and understandably had issues with excessive wear. The first rotary positive displacement gas meters that were based on the blower configuration were introduced in 1920 by the Dresser-Roots company. While the basic meter configuration is well established, changes in materials, manufacturing processes over the last 100+ years have improved the meter reliability, rangeability and long-term accuracy so that the meters are still a popular choice even with the introduction of newer technologies.
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Document ID: 449835DA

GAS AND LIQUID MEASUREMENT VALIDATION
Author(s): Stephen C. Anson
Abstract/Introduction:
Advancements in electronic gas and liquid measurement systems, SCADA systems, data management, and business intelligence software is increasing the access to reliable data. This is both good and bad for the measurement staff who rely on this data to make decisions. This abundance of reliable data is good because the analysts have more data to use to perform historical comparisons and statistical evaluations, however, this abundance of reliable data is also bad because it can become overwhelming and often disguise, or hide, an outlier in the data. The term validation is defined by Merriam-Webster as an act, process, or instance of validating especially, the determination of the degree of validity of a measuring device. To better understand this definition, it is helpful to know the definition of valid. Merriam-Webster defines valid as well-grounded or justifiable logically correct. By these definitions, one can assert that a validated value is one that is determined and applied through a combination of human and machine intelligence, and possibly including some mathematical analysis.
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Document ID: 55217EF3

GAS ODORANTS - SAFE HANDLING, HEALTH, AND ENVIRONMENT
Author(s): Daniel E. Arrieta, PhD, David C. Miller, PhD, Eric Van Tol,
Abstract/Introduction:
Thiols (mercaptans), alkyl sulfides (dimethyl sulfide and methyl ethyl sulfide), and cyclic sulfides, such as tetrahydrothiophene, have been widely used in the odorization of natural and liquefied petroleum gas due to the fact that natural gas does not possess an odor. Mercaptans, for example, have proven to be very effective in odorizing because of their low odor threshold and therefore, immediate impact on the olfactory system (Roberts, 1993). Although, gas odorants are characterized as having a low hazard potential regarding health effects, their unique physical chemical properties such as, high flammability, require that they be handled safely. The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the human health and environmental concerns associated with gas odorants, to recommend safe handling and personal monitoring, and to discuss the impact of regulatory changes associated with the chemical management of these chemicals.
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Document ID: BDE63543

HOW TO PERFORM A LOST & UNACCOUNTED-FOR GAS PROGRAM
Author(s): John McDaniel
Abstract/Introduction:
Many (likely most) gas pipeline companies struggle with lost-and-unaccounted-for-gas (L&U) and it can be a significant cost to their bottom line as shown below. As shown in this inset, by reducing L&U from 0.6 percent to .25 percent, a typical company with a 2 BCF daily throughput could save Over 7.6 million dollars annually based on 3.00 gas prices, which is a daily loss of 21,000.
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Document ID: 8A9A42B2

IMPROVING FLOW MEASUREMENTS WITH IMPROVED CALIBRATION AND DATA HANDLING PROCEDURES
Author(s): Duane Harris
Abstract/Introduction:
The continual flow of information from field measurement technicians to measurement analysts in the corporate office is extremely demanding and creates tremendous and constant challenges for all organizations. Every day, measurement technicians test their knowledge and skill sets regarding: Electronic and pneumatic controls Communication system support Multiple technical disciplines Measurement and verification equipment Keeping current with applicable measurement standards Standard operating procedures Facility regulatory requirements Ongoing training Measurement analysts require a completely different skillset to verify the flow measurement data along with interpreting the meter testing and calibration data received from the field. Analysts are tasked with absorbing large quantities of information and utilizing their extensive knowledge base to determine whether a current month adjustment or even prior month(s) adjustments are warranted. Throughout the process, maintaining data integrity requires all parties to continually ask: Did the technician and analyst follow the correct procedures in performing the calibration and the adjustment?
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Document ID: C8846046

INTEGRATING AND TRENDING USM, FLOW COMPUTER, AND CHROMATOGRAPH DIAGNOSTICS TO IDENTIFY MEASUREMENT PROBLEMS
Author(s): Ed Hanks
Abstract/Introduction:
Todays smart measurement devices produce significant diagnostics information. When the diagnostics from the various devices are collected, trended, and integrated, operators can remotely and continuously identify measurement problems. The vocabulary associated with this topic is evolving. In the past, the industry used terms such as SCADA and Condition Based Monitoring to describe this process. These terms are being replaced by terms such as Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) and Big Data Analytics, and even AI. In either case, this paper looks at the problems associated with collecting, trending, and integrating diagnostics information. It then gives examples of how diagnostics can be used to identify measurement problems. Finally, the paper provides an example of the reduction in exposure to Lost and Unaccounted For gas (LAUF) that operators may expect through implementing comprehensive diagnostic monitoring and analysis systems.
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Document ID: BB9579A0

LIQUID MEASUREMENT STATION DESIGN with NGL CONSIDERATIONS
Author(s): Michael P. Frey
Abstract/Introduction:
There are many factors that must be considered to properly design a liquid measurement station. While many of the components of measurement stations are similar, the criterion that determines the equipment to utilize for a given application or product can vary significantly from project to project. This paper will address the most common applications in the liquid hydrocarbon industry for large volume product measurement as it pertains to custody transfer applications. Custody transfer measurement includes accurate quantity measurement using metering, though equally important is accurate quality measurement using quality and sampling equipment. These custody transfer and/or fiscal metering stations consist of mechanical components and instrumentation on a skidded system along with simple to complex supervisory control systems with flow computers, programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and a human machine interface (HMI) with customized programming to achieve the required measurement goal.
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Document ID: DC3D8DFF

Natural Gas Measurement Considerations in a Hydrogen Economy
Abstract/Introduction:
Historically, oil and gas companies have focused on keeping hydrogen out of their pipelines to avoid product contamination, prevent hydrogen embrittlement damage to the steel, and support measurement accuracy. Now, we have an industry-wide shift as part of the hydrogen economy to tap into the capabilities of this alternative fuel source. Why the sudden shift? ESG (Environmental, Social, and Governance) initiatives targeting zero- carbon emissions have become a key driver for many U.S. corporations. While hydrogen-based alternative energy in Europe and Asia may be ahead of North America, our domestic gas industry is now focused on the task at hand. Things are moving quickly to transform the industry through hydrogen utilization.
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Document ID: 3892DDA3

MEASURING HYDROCARBON AND WATER DEWPOINTS
Author(s): Sohrab Zarrabian
Abstract/Introduction:
Hydrocarbon Dew Point (HDP) remains one of the key quality parameters of natural gas streams. Its determination is needed for operational and safety considerations, as well as to satisfy tariffs and regulations in US and overseas pipeline operations. The recent development of shale gas in US has added to the need for accurate and consistent measurement of HDP across a range of different mixtures of natural gas. Theoretical methods for prediction of natural gas have been used in the past, but have been shown to have significant errors associated with them1. In general, theoretical methods using GC component analysis and EOS models have too much error to be useful. Direct measurements, using a chilled-mirror, continue to remain the preferred method for measurement of HDP. We introduced our line of hydrocarbon and water dewpoint measurement instruments about 5 years ago. These analyzers utilize CEIRS technology, which is a novel implementation of the chilled-mirror principle. It utilizes IR spectroscopy to not only detect the dewpoint but also whether it was a water dewpoint or hydrocarbon dewpoint. We have collected the data from our analyzers corresponding to approximately 20 years worth of data. In this paper, we discuss some of the findings from the analysis of this data.
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Document ID: 02C0C694

METHANE DESTRUCTION FOR EPA AND ASTM VENTED & FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
Author(s): J. David Hailey, Ph.D.
Abstract/Introduction:
The Thermal Oxidizer plays a vital role in the gas industry, effectively mitigating harmful emissions such as EPA Toxic Release Inventories Gases (TRI), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAP), benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes (BTEX), and methane (Natural Gas). These emissions are closely regulated by the EPA, TCEQ, and AQMD to ensure compliance, as they would otherwise be released through flaring. To ensure safe operation, the NFPA and ASME provide comprehensive guidelines on fire safety, prevention, and the necessary controls and safety devices for oxidizer systems.
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Document ID: 89E1AEFE

METHODS FOR CERTIFYING MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT
Author(s): Scott A. Crone
Abstract/Introduction:
Like any other piece of equipment, a measurement artifact must be maintained. Obviously, it has to be in working order in general. However, what is more important is that it be operating within specified parameters and providing measurements that are traceable to a known source or sources. This paper provides a general overview of calibration and certification. It also discusses some key terminology and methods.
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Document ID: A8CD27D5

Natural Gas Liquid Measurement-Direct & Inferred Mass
Author(s): Dean Minehart
Abstract/Introduction:
Natural Gas Liquid (NGL) streams consist of mixtures of hydrocarbons including ethane, propane, butane, pentane and natural gasoline. NGL is sometimes referred to as y- grade. The American Petroleum Institute (API) Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS) Chapter 14 Section 7 provides guidance on the mass measurement of NGL. Mass measurement techniques are applied to NGL measurement due to solution mixing of a variable fluid composition within the NGL stream. Mass measurement can be achieved by direct measurement (Coriolis flow meter) or inferred by multiplying a volumetric flow rate times flowing density. This paper will discuss the relative advantages of direct mass measurement for NGL streams.
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Document ID: C69AAE04

NATURAL GAS SAMPLING For CUSTODY TRANSFER
Author(s): David J. Fish
Abstract/Introduction:
The necessity to be able to take a representative sample of the hydrocarbon product known as natural gas is to ensure proper accounting for transactions and efficient product processing. The various sampling methods that are available and the most widely known options and limitations of these methods are discussed here. The appropriate equipment to use and the reasons for their use and correct installation of the equipment are also addressed.
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Document ID: A92E0C42

NEW IDEAS FOR ORIFICE METERING: INCREASING TURNDOWN USING ORIFICE METER TECHNOLOGY & ESG MITIGTIGATION IN ORIFICE METERING SYSTEMS
Author(s): Philip A. Lawrence
Abstract/Introduction:
Well and pipeline flow rates are often variable. Shale wells experience a steep decline curve. Pad drilling can bring on new wells, increasing flow, followed by declining flow in the future. This paper describes a strategy that can be employed to increase the operational flow range over which an orifice meter may be operated, thus lowering costs. Orifice meter turndown can be greater than is often assumed. Orifice plates used in natural gas custody transfer metering are subject to strict rules regarding flow rates and differential pressures that are allowed per each plate thickness versus diameter . Flow rates per area ratio (?)are defined to make sure that orifice plate elements are not overstressed or damaged, during normal operation . Differential pressures (DPs) are fully described over specific ranges in all national and international measurement standards relating to orifice metering such as AGA, API, and ISO, to make sure that plate elements are kept from high DP distortion during flowing conditions. Orifice plate and carrier removal/replacement in orifice fitting designs usually performed by using a mechanical crank handle and gear mechanism is left to each individual manufacturing company generally built to allow plate changes during flowing conditions.
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Document ID: 8DEA69B5

NEW IDEAS FOR ORIFICE METERING: INCREASING TURNDOWN USING ORIFICE METER TECHNOLOGY & ESG MITIGTIGATION IN ORIFICE METERING SYSTEMS
Author(s): Philip A. Lawrence
Abstract/Introduction:
Well and pipeline flow rates are often variable. Shale wells experience a steep decline curve. Pad drilling can bring on new wells, increasing flow, followed by declining flow in the future. This paper describes a strategy that can be employed to increase the operational flow range over which an orifice meter may be operated, thus lowering costs. Orifice meter turndown can be greater than is often assumed. Orifice plates used in natural gas custody transfer metering are subject to strict rules regarding flow rates and differential pressures that are allowed per each plate thickness versus diameter . Flow rates per area ratio (?)are defined to make sure that orifice plate elements are not overstressed or damaged, during normal operation . Differential pressures (DPs) are fully described over specific ranges in all national and international measurement standards relating to orifice metering such as AGA, API, and ISO, to make sure that plate elements are kept from high DP distortion during flowing conditions. Orifice plate and carrier removal/replacement in orifice fitting designs usually performed by using a mechanical crank handle and gear mechanism is left to each individual manufacturing company generally built to allow plate changes during flowing conditions.
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Document ID: E372EF43

OVERALL MEASUREMENT ACCURACY
Author(s): Paul J. La Nasa
Abstract/Introduction:
This paper presents methods for determining the uncertainty of both differential and positive metering stations. It takes into account the type of meter, number of meters in parallel, type of secondary instruments, and the determination of physical properties. The paper then relates this information to potential influence on system balance.
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Document ID: BDC0BD5C

OVERVIEW OF EQUATIONS OF STATE
Author(s): Adam G. Hawley, Darin L. George
Abstract/Introduction:
Determination of fluid properties and phase conditions of hydrocarbon mixtures is critical for accurate hydrocarbon measurement, representative sampling, and overall pipeline operation. Fluid properties such as compressibility and density are critical for flow measurement, and determination of the hydrocarbon due point is important to verify that heavier hydrocarbons will not condense out of a gas mixture in changing process conditions. In the oil and gas industry, equations of state (EOS) are typically used to determine the properties and the phase conditions of hydrocarbon mixtures. EOS are mathematical correlations that relate properties of hydrocarbons to pressure, temperature, and fluid composition. Various software packages are available that use different EOS to calculate a range of natural gas properties and phase conditions. This paper discusses the different EOS that are available, the properties that can be obtained from each EOS, and practical uses of EOS software for natural gas pipeline applications.
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Document ID: DBB2A015

PERIODIC INSPECTION OF REGULATORS AND RELIEF VALVES
Author(s): James M. Doyle
Abstract/Introduction:
Inspections and tests on regulators and relief valves is a Department of Transportation Compliance rule. The sections within the DOT manual stating the rule include 192.351 through 192.359, 192.751, 192.479, 192.481, 192.739, and 192.741. Keep in mind these rules are the minimum required tests. Your Company or Regulatory Agency may be more stringent and require more or detailed testing. You must also keep in mind that the Manufacturer of your equipment will also provide a guideline pertaining to maintenance. These tests are not only required for safe, reliable service to your Customers, but also could be used in any legal proceeding for documentation and purpose. There are many important tasks and precautionary measures to perform and inform before you actually start the actual testing. Listing these items and performing a checklist could provide to be a reminder. Some station designs and equipment installations may require more than one person to perform a safe, reliable test. Plan the procedure within your work group, be sure all safety equipment and notifications are in place, perform the task and document the results according to your Company procedures. We must also be aware of the Operator Qualifications rule. The Technician must be completely OQ qualified and have the proof of all the required OQ tests readily accessible. Most importantly, these required DOT and Regulatory Agency tests are done for the safety of the system, customers and you.
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Document ID: 9DA20E79

PHMSAS RULE IMPACT ON GAS MEASUREMENT (CONTROL ROOM MANAGEMENT)
Author(s): Russel W.Treat
Abstract/Introduction:
This paper summarizes a SCADA implementers perspective regarding the intent of the Pipeline Hazardous Materials Safety Administrations (PHMSA) Control Room Management (CRM) rule. In addition, this paper provides a fresh approach to CRM, describing why companies should use the CRM process to go beyond compliance requirements and implement operating best practices that would significantly enhance operations reliability and pipeline safety.
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Document ID: 8A76129F

Preventing Direct Lightning Strikes
Author(s): Peter Carpenter
Abstract/Introduction:
Protection against direct lightning strikes has been a subject of controversy since the days of Benjamin Franklin. In 1752, Benjamin Franklin introduced a lightning strike collection system. Subsequently, it became known as the Franklin System, and the more contemporary name is the lightning conductor, air terminal or lightning rod. Shortly after its introduction, a controversy developed between those who believed in sharp pointed rods and blunt rods. Since both of these views lacked a physical foundation or statistical data at that time, the debate continued until very recently. The effectiveness of the Franklin System of stroke collection has been questioned for over 100 years. Again, because there was no foundational physics, minimal test data or organized statistics presented to justify the manufacturer claims, they continued in use because of the lack of alternatives, other acceptable standards or political reasons.
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Document ID: 4C6E18F0

PROBLEMS UNIQUE TO OFFSHORE GAS MEASUREMENT
Author(s): Royce Miller
Abstract/Introduction:
Some major problems and unique solutions will be addressed with gas measurement on offshore platforms in the Gulf of Mexico. This presentation will show the major roll safety, transportation, and weather play in the technicians ability to verify the accuracy of the gas measurement facility. Proper operation, design, and installation will ensure accurate measurement.
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Document ID: 5C75EC08

PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT EFFECTS ON GAS MEASUREMENT
Author(s): John McDaniel / Tom Cleveland
Abstract/Introduction:
The drill bit penetrates a rock formation thousands of feet below the surface of the earth, a steel casing is slid into the hole, and perforations are made to the casing that reach into the surrounding rock. At that point, an escape route is created for anything in the formation that can be released to the surface, which has lower pressure, or that can be lifted by that process. The producer must be able to obtain enough of what comes up to the surface and conditioned to a marketable state to make it worthwhile. Obviously, the natural gas, natural gas liquids (NGLs), crude oil and condensates are the valuable commodities that are produced and sold. Unfortunately, other materials are included in what surfaces from inside the earth. Many of these require production equipment to remove the material or condition the product for sale, and the effects of some types of production equipment used can have an effect on measurement.
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Document ID: E3B520CD

PROTECTION OF NATURAL GAS MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT AGAINST MOISTURE AND CORROSION
Author(s): DONALD P. MAYEAUX
Abstract/Introduction:
This presentation addresses problems associated with moisture and corrosion caused by high relative humidity and airborne contaminants. By controlling moisture and corrosion long-term, many problems associated with sensitive field electronics can be avoided.
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Document ID: 9E7294D9

REAL TIME ELECTRONIC GAS MEASUREMENT
Author(s): Al Majek
Abstract/Introduction:
The measurement of oil & gas production has progressed considerably since the days of paper charts and manual integration. Technology has moved increasingly to microprocessor based flow computers allowing for greater measurement accuracy, increased control functionality, and ready integration into a companys enterprise computer networks
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Document ID: 2102C95B

SAMPLING CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH UNCONVENTIONAL GAS SOURCES
Author(s): Mark Firmin
Abstract/Introduction:
Advances in exploration, drilling and production technologies make it feasible to extract natural gas from sources that in the past have been regarded as unconventional and so, such sources are becoming a larger percentage of the gas supply. The feasibility of producing gas from a source is the primary factor in determining whether that source should be categorized as conventional or unconventional. What has been unconventional in the past may be considered conventional in the future. This paper will discuss gas sampling system design fundamentals and highlight key aspects of current industry standards. It will also explore the challenges associated with sampling gas from unconventional sources such as shale formations, deep-water offshore wells and enhanced recovery systems. Proper sampling of natural gas from unconventional sources usually requires equipment and techniques that are more sophisticated than those that have performed well for conventional gas sources. Methods for the continuous sampling of natural gas that is wet, at high pressure or even supercritical will be presented. The primary focus of this paper is on minimizing the error associated with sampling for compositional analysis. Sampling considerations associated with the measurement of single components will however also be discussed.
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Document ID: A4798A99

SCADA AND TELEMETRY IN NATURAL GAS OPERATIONS
Author(s): Russel W. Treat
Abstract/Introduction:
SCADA systems are combinations of field devices, communications infrastructure, computer hardware and software integrated into a system that provides for safe, reliable, and effective operation of remote facilities. Producers, gatherers, midstream operators and pipelines use SCADA system for operations. In addition, SCADA gathers data used by advanced applications such as measurement accounting. SCADA is key for highly profitable operation. This paper provides and overview of the building blocks of the SCADA system. The SCADA host and advanced applications are discussed in detail. The paper concludes with a discussion of SCADA trends.
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Document ID: 62377F92

SMART NETWORKS FOR GAS UTILITY SYSTEMS
Author(s): David Anglin
Abstract/Introduction:
There was once a time when you could get a car in any coloras long as it was black. They had frames, running boards and 15 horsepower engines. Who could ever need more? Just like the auto industry has adapted from this original approach to meet the demands of consumers, regulators and shareholders, the gas industry must do the same. Automated meter reading - also known as AMR or AMI - provides that opportunity. This paper will compare and contrast AMR and AMI for gas utilities and provide important areas for gas utilities to consider when adopting or upgrading wireless meter technology.
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Document ID: 2A098DBE

CALCULATING THE SPEED OF SOUND IN NATURAL GAS -- AGA REPORT NO. 10 TO AGA REPORT NO. 8
Author(s): Jerry Paul Smith, Joel Clancy
Abstract/Introduction:
The speed of sound in natural gas is the velocity a sound wave travels in the gas. There are a number of gas properties that affect the speed of sound and they include the composition of the gas, the pressure of the gas, and the temperature of the gas. The American Gas Association (AGA) Report No. 10, Speed of Sound in Natural Gas and Other Related Hydrocarbon Gases, first published in 2003 provided an accurate method for calculating the speed of sound in natural gas and other related hydrocarbon fluids.
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Document ID: C4673E3F

TECHNIQUES FOR SPOT SAMPLING GAS
Author(s): Matthew S. Parrott
Abstract/Introduction:
While inaccuracies in measurement can be costly and common, they are also avoidable in most cases. Technicians willing to study the experiences and best practices of industry leaders can make a world of difference by applying what theyve learned and sharing the knowledge shared in this paper with others. This paper aims to describe spot sampling as defined by industry standards, and discuss important factors that may impact accuracy when taking a spot sample.
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Document ID: B46D7F52

THEORY AND APPLICATION OF PULSE INTERPOLATION TO LIQUID METER PROVER SYSTEMS
Author(s): Dave Seiler
Abstract/Introduction:
Pulse interpolation, by definition, is the ability to estimate values of (a function) between two known values. Therefore, pulse interpolation enables pulse counts to be made to a fraction of a pulse, thus greatly reducing the rounding - off errors that occur when pulse counts are made to the nearest whole number which always happens in the absence of Pulse Interpolation.
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Document ID: 0857833A

TRAINING FIELD PERSONNEL - Training Field Measurement Technicians
Author(s): Tom Pendleton
Abstract/Introduction:
Can the effectiveness of skills training be measured? A Region Director friend of mine who works for a large natural gas pipeline company complained that his new measurement employees (new hires and experienced personnel that have transferred into gas measurement) are not performing required tasks and activities to his expectations. My over-pressure protection & measurement equipment supplier, two months ago, presented a free, 1-day training session on How to Test a Relief Valve Set Point. I paid for donuts and lunch! We told them exactly how to do it. My employees just dont get it. This response, a reaction created from frustration, plays out time and time again. Although this Director recognizes a performance deficiency, his statement is directed at a result (actual outcome) rather than the cause(s) that creates his concern. Many companies today are implementing proactive workforce readiness strategies. They are no longer simply paying lip service to the need for effective training programs, devising reactive measures, or creating explanations regarding why employees dont understand and cannot perform the skills expected of them.
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Document ID: A9C1828E

TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION FOR ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT DEVICES
Author(s): Bob Garner
Abstract/Introduction:
Measurement, control, and automation are critical to todays business environment. However, the electronics that enable these systems to function, and make these systems so valuable, can be vulnerable to the damaging effects of overvoltage transients. The damage can easily be seen when components or equipment has been transformed to charred ruins and slag metal, but many times the damage is not readily visible and/or may show up in the future as glitches or inconsistencies. This paper will explore the sources of these transient overvoltages, how they get into the systems, and an approach to protection of these critical systems that can, along with the technologies (and their tradeoffs) that we can employ, to greatly enhance the survivability of the electronic equipment.
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Document ID: A612E473

ULTRASONIC METERS FOR COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS
Author(s): Paul Honchar
Abstract/Introduction:
An ultrasonic meter falls into the classification of inferential meters. Unlike positive displacement meters that capture volume to totalize volume, inferential meters measure flowing gas velocity to totalize volume. Ultrasonic meters use sound waves to measure flowing gas velocity to infer volume. Ultrasonic meters have been around for many years, primarily in liquid measurement. However, we are seeing more and more applications in the natural gas industry.
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Document ID: 4FB8E957

Ultrasonic Meter Diagnostics - Basic: Overview of operation and maintenance of wetted-sensor ultrasonic flow meters
Author(s): Dan Hackett
Abstract/Introduction:
This paper discusses fundamental principles of ultrasonic gas flow meters used for measurement of natural gas and the available basic diagnostic capability to assess meter operation and performance. The basic requirements for obtaining good meter performance, when installed in the field, will be reviewed. Most of this information can be generalized to other manufacturers transit time ultrasonic flow meters however, these examples provided, particularly with respect to some diagnostic features, are based on the Daniel SeniorSonic ultrasonic flow meter. Advanced diagnostic data, in conjunction with gas composition, pressure and temperature, that provides diagnostic benefits beyond that of other primary measurement devices is outside the scope of this paper, though these topics will be covered in the companion paper, Ultrasonic Meter Diagnostics - Advanced.
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Document ID: 25A4F3F9

Upstream Natural Gas Sales Verification
Author(s): Mark B. Fillman,Jayson A. Payne
Abstract/Introduction:
Within the upstream sector of the oil and gas industry, the custody transfer of natural gas is usually determined by orifice measurement which is governed by a sales agreement between the producer and pipeline company. In most cases, the gas sales agreement references a combination of American Gas Association (AGA), Ameri- can Petroleum Institute (API), and Gas Processors Association (GPA) standards which are to be incorporated into the custody measurement procedures. Verification that the physical deliveries of natural gas are accurate and accountable, for both parties, is fundamental to the business cycle that occurs each month. This paper re- views the relationships between producer and pipeline, the varying responsibilities of each party, and some use- ful methods to produce more accurate and accountable natural gas measurement results.
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Document ID: 24E64C6A

Utilizing Mag Meter Diagnostics to Trend Meter Health and Measurement Efficiency
Author(s): Staton Hoover
Abstract/Introduction:
Electromagnetic flow meters possess the ability to deliver real time diagnostic data regarding meter health and flow processes. Using the onboard diagnostics can help an individual trend fluid quality and measurement accuracy by understanding each KPI and how it correlates to a known standard. A mag meter uses Faradays Law to calculate the fluids velocity passing through the meter. In order to accurately measure the velocity, a mag meter is equipped with a process ground, which aids in the ability to rid of any excess voltage created within the meter run. This in turn allows the meter to accurately convert the fluids velocity into a flow rate given a known pipe size. Mag meters can be used in a variety of applications from produced water, wastewater, food and beverage, oil, and chemical. It is important to understand and be familiar with the application in which you use a mag meter, as it can be very fluid dependent. For example, measuring freshwater vs oil, the water has a higher conductivity (lower resistance) than the oil. This will directly impact the accuracy of measurement from the mag meter.
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Document ID: 91AA803C

UTILIZING WIRELESS INSTRUMENTATION IN WELL OPTIMIZATION
Author(s): Denis Rutherford
Abstract/Introduction:
The Natural Gas and Oil industry is continually driven by cost cutting measures and the need to gain more operational efficiencies and visibility to regulatory requirements. This paper summarizes a solution in which wireless instruments integrate with other conventional equipment to offer a rapidly deployable advanced well optimization system. Wireless instrumentation products provide cost-effective and easy to install alternatives to traditional, hardwired sensor sites. These rugged field units are designed for the majority of Oil & Gas applications and for installations ranging from general purpose to Class I Div I hazardous locations with extreme temperature and humidity ranges.
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Document ID: 839B808E

METER VALIDATION FOR DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICES USING ADVANCED METER DIAGNOSTICS
Author(s): Dr. Richard Stevens
Abstract/Introduction:
Differential Pressure (DP) Flow meters are popular for being relatively simple, reliable and inexpensive. Their principles of operation are relatively easily understood. However, traditionally there has been a misconception that no DP meter self-diagnostic capabilities exist and as such only upgrading to newer ultrasonic or Coriolis technology can help bridge this gap. In 2008 & 2009 a generic Differential Pressure (DP) meter self-diagnostic methodology 1,2 was proposed to the industry. In this paper these advanced diagnostic principles were applied towards helping provide end user a newer yet effective, methodology for DP flow meters diagnostics, field proven with experimental test results. These results form the basis of a comprehensive validation methodology designed to help meter operators achieve improved confidence on their DP measurement and thereby help lower their operational risks associated with large measurement uncertainties due to non-compliance. The paper also aims to demonstrate how such new advanced tools/methodologies can help reduce operating costs (OPEX) by moving towards a risk based predictive maintenance plan.
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Document ID: F0D7E13E

VERIFYING GAS CHROMATOGRAPHS AT CUSTODY TRANSFER LOCATIONS
Author(s): Daniel Tiller
Abstract/Introduction:
Chromatography is one of the most widely used means of performing chemical analyses in the world. Russian botanist Mikhail Tswett is credited with discovering the technique of chromatography. Using alcohol as a mobile phase and chalk as a stationary phase, Tswett was able to separate various plant extracts.
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Document ID: 68EDB1CB

Wellhead Liquids Measurement, Whats an Industry To Do?
Author(s): Mark V. Goloby
Abstract/Introduction:
Liquids measurement in the oil patch is suddenly getting a lot of attention. Some are dismayed at the low level of technology used to measure liquids. Today, custody transfer of 80 to 85% of onshore crude and condensate production is still documented by a hauler climbing to the top of the tank and strapping it. That would be a fair estimate, concurs Mark Davis Staff Engineer Shell Exploration and Production. The hauler straps the tank before loading his truck and again when he finishes. The producer is paid on whatever that hauler writes on the ticket. I did not realize it was that immature, remarked Grant Farris, Vice President Producer Services, CIMA Energy. So, why it is that immature? Simple, really. The United States is experiencing the highest level of active liquids exploration and production in 40 years. Five years ago finding an oil play at NAPE was almost impossible. While the industry was diligently automating gas measurement to the digital world via electronic flow measurement, oil at 30/bbl and 15bbls/day was not given the same level of attention nor effort. These dynamics have changed.
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Document ID: 7F02FFA0